Which of the following is a priority of the crime control method of policing?

The idea of model or paradigm is related to the philosophy of science, which suggests that some accepted examples of actual scientific practice can serve as models for particular scientific research activities [Kuhn, 1970]. Weber [1947] used the term “ideal type” to denote the construction of a purely rational course of action which clearly and unambiguously expresses a conceptual construct. A model can be construed as a widely accepted concept or theory that offers the best way of understanding a social phenomenon. It also explains and describes the essential aspects of a concept or theory based on structured assumptions. With accurate simplification and representation of reality, it can be operationalized for empirical studies. A model, therefore, consists of the essence of theoretical assumptions, indicators of commonly accepted principles, and characteristics of observable behaviors [Bohigan, 1977; Kuhn 1970, Tilles 1963, Vaill 1973].

The idea of model in the philosophy of science has been applied to policing. Various models have been used to explain the organization and development of modern police Bayley 1994, Fogelson 1977, Goldstein 1994, Kelling and Moore 1988, Manning 1977, Roberg and Kuykendall 1990, Trojanowicz 1990. A policing model can be described as a representation of a policing approach or approaches. It is the essence of the accepted principles of organizing a police department, structured around specific policing assumptions and theoretical constructs, and governed by accepted rules of inference in the field of policing. The derivative uses of the idea of model in policing indicates that there are two aspects of a model: the abstracting of properties and empirical research and results. The empirical world is not a set of ideal types, since ideal types were theoretically derived, both abstract and general [Weber, 1947]. But ideal types must also have empirical referents because they are “based upon the particularities of actual occurrence” [McKinney, 1970:250]. The applicability, therefore, of several ideal types of their dimensions Becker 1968, McKinney 1966, Tonnies 1957 can be empirically explored.

As a first step in model building, the modeler should ask what policing approaches are applicable to the community and then define them in terms of their theoretical assumptions, organizational principles, and characteristic activities. Policing approaches applicable to this research setting can be classified as professionalism, community-based policing, problem-oriented policing, and security. These approaches to policing are obviously not mutually exclusive. All approaches are limited in their ability to fully explain the reality they represent [Tilles, 1963] and restrained by the social context in which they are applied. A combination of different policing approaches may interact with one another and be perceived as the appropriate model by police officers and community members. Physical geography, demographics, and political power all influence the manner in which different approaches are arranged. Changing expectations concerning police activity and behavior also cause the variation of policing styles [Roberg and Kuykendall, 1990]. The role of the police manager is to integrate or balance different expectations. Facing this complex situation, the modeler should conduct studies of different approaches to determine the optimal fit between the unique characteristics of the community and the mixture of policing strategies [Sherman, 1987].

Even though a mixed model is more commonly found in a community, the modeler still needs to define those applicable approaches separately, because the model should be based on a clear understanding of how individual policing approaches are arranged, and each approach is a concept that must be operationalized for empirical study. Since there is no common agreement on what different policing approaches represent, each modeler should take into account both available police literature and local community conditions. The following discussion of the four approaches [i.e., professionalism, community-based policing, problem-oriented policing, and security], therefore, is for the purpose of developing a police model for this study only and should not be construed as representing a universal definition of ideal types of policing. It should be emphasized also that elements of the four policing approaches can appear in more than one type, that problem solving and community policing are not the same, and that the empirical validation of claims about the nature of the type, or “what the public demands,” are research essentials.

Police professionalism is based on the assumption that police officers are professional law enforcement officers, expected to meet high admission standards, undergo extensive training, devote themselves to the public interest, subscribe to a code of ethics, and possess specialized knowledge and a wide range of extraordinary skills Fogelson 1977, Vollmer 1969. They are considered more effective when society’s laws are enforced without political interference Goldstein 1994, Reiss 1992, Wilson and McLaren 1977 and law enforcement is regarded as the end of policing [Cordner, 1995]. It is assumed also in the professional approach that the focus on improvement of internal police management is conducive to accomplishing the goal of crime control [Goldstein, 1991]. With the focus on organizational problems such as poorly educated personnel, inadequately trained officers, and weak discipline, the professional approach was expected to have a great impact on crime [Sherman, 1989].

A set of coherent and consistent principles for the professional approach based on Max Weber’s classical theory of organization [Weber, 1947] has been observed in the past sixty years. First, efficiency is the principal orientation of the professional approach, and efficient crime fighting is the managerial priority Cordner and Williams 1995, Manning 1995, Skolnick 1966, Walker 1983. A second major principle is organizational control, which is based on a hierarchical command structure, bureaucratic rules and procedures, division of labor, uniformity, military-style discipline, and efficient use of police personnel Bordua and Reiss 1966, Fogelson 1977, Manning 1994, Reiss 1992, Skolnick 1966, Wilson 1963. Third, scientific management is emphasized in terms of use of technology and applied science Greene 1981, Moore and Trojanowicz 1988.

Police professionalism requires the use of a series of police activities for the purpose of efficient crime control. These activities include police training, criminal investigation, searching for physical evidence, arresting perpetrators, serving warrants, suspect interrogation, street sweeps, radar checks, roadblocks, and motorized patrol Gaines, Southerland, and Angel 1991, Lurigio and Rosenbaum 1994, Skogan 1994, Walker 1977. The plan that Wilson implemented in the 1960s in Chicago stressed high levels of mobility and rapid responses to calls [Goldstein, 1994]. Motorized patrol and rapid response to calls became the benchmark of professional police activities Reiss 1992, Sherman 1989.

The basic premise of community-based policing is that a community in fact exists. Although traditional community hardly exists in the modern metropolis, the issues that provide the police with the unifying principles necessary to allow them access to the community can serve as vital links in restoring a traditional sense of community [Trojanowicz, Benson, and Trojanowicz, 1988]. It is further assumed that the partnership relationship between the police and the community has an effect on crime. Community members must be involved in policing Greene and Taylor 1988, Kelling and Moore 1988, Pate et al. 1986, Skogan 1990, Skolnick and Bayley 1988, Sparrow, Moore, and Kennedy 1990.

Organizationally, community-based policing requires first that the police adjust their policing philosophy to neighborhood variation and support differential enforcement and tailored policing based on local norms and values [Cordner, 1995]. To do so, the police must decentralize their organizational structure and shift command responsibility to lower rank levels Bayley 1994, Greene 1981. The police must also establish and maintain community-based crime-prevention programs. These programs involve mobilization of community resources, commitment to community empowerment, and internal and external communication Sherman, Milton, and Kelly 1973, Trojanowicz and Bucqueroux 1994.

Community-based policing requires that the police broaden the scope of the police officers’ roles and engage in proactive activities. Police officers not only enforce the law but also maintain order in the community, provide community services, and prevent crimes. Community policing is operationalized by various typical activities such as consultation, foot patrol, team policing, local substations, and neighborhood self-help programs Bayley 1994, Cordner and Williams 1995, Sherman 1987, Wycoff and Skogan 1993. As an important community-policing activity, foot patrol in urban centers enables police officers to interact with community members and to maintain good police-community relations [Trojanowicz, 1990].

Problem-oriented policing assumes that police administration in the United States had been heavily involved in the “means-over-ends” syndrome, which focuses primarily on improving the police organization rather than the impact of higher police efficiency. This syndrome had reduced the effectiveness of police agencies [Goldstein, 1991]. The police would be more effective if they stressed the substantive outcome of police work by analyzing and addressing the problems the public expects them to handle. Also regarded as the rational-contingency approach, this orientation emphasizes systematic and objective analysis of problems and development of solutions contingent on the results of the analysis Roberg and Kuykendall 1990, Spelman and Eck 1987.

Organizationally, the problem-oriented approach calls for the police administrator to take greater initiative in directing the department in dealing with substantive problems. Purely administrative matters are no longer treated as priorities under this approach. Police officers are provided with specialized training and given more discretion and autonomy in handling problems. The police are required to develop an organizational capacity to collect and analyze data and to evaluate the effectiveness of their operations [Goldstein, 1991].

Activities particular to the problem-oriented approach are systematic research and evaluation, selective approaches and a crime-prone location focus, a repeat-victims focus and recurring-problem focus, and the enlistment of other agencies and cooperative planning [Spelman, 1990]. Systematic research requires that police officers explore patterns of crimes, identify causes of crime problems, and design crime-specific intervention strategies. The selective approach and crime-prone location focus are obviously related to the repeat-victims focus and recurring-problem focus Sherman 1992, Sherman, Shaw, and Rogan 1995. Enlisting other agencies and cooperative planning require that police work in collaboration with other private and/or public agencies in dealing with and solving related problems.

The security approach is supported by the situational crime prevention theory Clarke 1992, Clarke 1995. First, it is assumed that blocking or designing out opportunities has a significant effect on reducing crimes. This effect is based on the belief that criminal conduct is “much more susceptible to variations in opportunity and to transitory pressures and inducements than conventional ‘dispositional’ theories allowed” [Clarke 1995:95]. It is further assumed that crime is a purposive event designed to meet the offender’s needs. The criminal decision processes and information used vary greatly between different offenses [Clarke, 1995]. Second, as part of the situational crime prevention theory, routine activity theory states that three minimal elements must be present for crime events to actually occur: a motivated offender, a suitable target, and the absence of a capable guardian [Cohen and Felson, 1979].

The security organizational principles involve [1] deployment of security guards and/or police officers in a manner that reduces criminal opportunities and decreases criminal capabilities; [2] training of security guards and/or police officers to employ situational prevention techniques; and [3] involvement of security guards in policing or involvement of police officers in private security. Based on situational crime prevention techniques, security officers can engage in a variety of crime prevention activities. Some typical activities are target hardening, access control, entry/exit screening, formal surveillance, identifying property, and rule setting [see Clarke 1992, Clarke 1995, for details].

Discussion

The analysis results indicated that the professional approach was largely determined by the role preference and orientation of police officers in comparison to community groups. They preferred more emphasis on improving internal police management, perceived themselves as law enforcers, and showed stronger agreement with the professional orientation than community members. There was a strong positive relationship between police status and preference for professionalism. Specifically, perceptions

Conclusions

Police model-building is a process of clearly defining applicable policing approaches, designing a research and data collection strategy, generating valid and reliable information regarding those approaches, and conducting multiple analyses of the collected information. It is a formal way of decision making in which orientations of various population groups in policing are rigorously studied to reach the most appropriate policy model. Understanding the expectations of both the police and