When a landlord grants possession of a property to a tenant, this is called an act of what?
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INTRODUCTIONMany of the questions you will be dealing with in land law questions will relate to leaseholds rather than freeholds. By and large, the characterisation of an estate as a leasehold will not be the focus of a question. Typically, it is the other aspects of a problem question which are of more importance, whether it be easements, or a mortgage relationship, or covenants. However, on occasion the question will be about one of two questions:
If the issue is whether or not the relationship is a lease, it is usually in the context of whether it is a lease or a licence. This shall be discussed in the section below entitled ‘Key Characteristics of Leases.’ Further on, we shall address some of the obligations owed by leaseholders. As with all other chapters, there will be example problem questions at the end. But first, some background:
BACKGROUNDA leasehold is defined in the Law of Property Act 1925 as an estate in the land for a term of ‘years absolute’ (Law of Property Act 1925, s.1(1)(b)). A lease (or as it is otherwise called, a leasehold) is conferred by a landlord (also called the lessor) on the tenant (lessee). The lease grants to the lessee a right of exclusive possession for a finite period of time. The period of time can be fixed or may be periodically extended. The period can be for any period of years: from one year to one million years (Law of Property Act 1925, s.205(1)(xxvii). Any area can be designated as a leasehold so long as it grants, for a definite period, a right of ‘exclusive domain of a particular individual’ (AG Securities v Vaughan [1988] UKHL 8 per Lord Oliver of Aylmerton). Aside from the restriction on the period of time for which a leaseholder may own land, there is no substantial distinction in the rights between leaseholders and freeholders. As the court has observed, the tenant leaseholder is equally able to exercise rights over land as would a freeholder (Street v Mountford [1985] 2 All ER 289 per Lord Templeman). Case in focus: Bruton v London & Quadrant Housing Trust [1999] UKHL 26 In the case of Bruton the House of Lords sought to draw a distinction between leases and the ‘term of years’ aspect. Lord Hoffmann said the creation of a lease does not in itself give rise to a right of an estate in the form of a term of years. It was sufficient to define a lease as any agreement for exclusive possession at a rent. Essentially, this key characteristic of leases is of a contractual, rather than proprietary, nature. Whether or not a term of years is created will ‘depend upon whether the landlord had an interest out of which he could grant it’ (per Lord Hoffmann). This ratio was repeated by the House of Lords when it stated that such tenancies, absent a term of years absolute, are contractual rather than proprietary and are not binding on third parties (Kay v Lambeth LBC [2006] 2 AC 465 per Lord Scott of Foscote). Key Points:
KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF LEASESIn the landmark case of Street v Mountford [1985] the court identified three key components of the ‘term of years’ aspect of leaseholds. They were identified as follows:
We shall now deal with some of these requirements in detail, as well as several other aspects of the leasehold relationship. Any given lease or tenancy must grant a right of exclusive possessionThe right of exclusive possession over land is said to be the ‘proper touchstone’ of a lease or tenancy (Radaich v Smith [1959] HCA 45 per Windeyer J). A tenancy by definition must involve a granting by the landlord of exclusive possession, and so a tenancy without the right of exclusive possession is a contradiction in terms. Lord Templeman observed in Street v Mountford [1985] that the tenant is entitled to ‘keep out strangers and keep out the landlord unless the landlord is exercising limited rights reserved to him by the tenancy agreement to enter and view and repair.’ By contrast, a person holding a bare licence to occupy has no such right to ‘exclude other persons’ (AG Securities v Vaughan [1988] per Lord Oliver of Aylmerton). Therefore, if a freeholder seeks to retain an unlimited right of access to the property over the leaseholder - as opposed to the right of access in limited and prescribed circumstances - then such an assertion by the freeholder would be unlawful. For example, requiring the tenant occupier to vacate the property for a prescribed period each day is inimical to the right of exclusive possession accorded to all lawful tenants (Aslan v Murphy (No. 1) [1989] EWCA Civ 2). What should be borne in mind is that a right of occupation does not mean a right of possession. Certain parties, described as licensees, will have a right of occupation, such as students in university accommodation or residents in a care home, but will not have a right to exclude other persons (Mehta v Royal Bank of Scotland (2000) 32 HLR 45). Case in focus: Westminster City Council v Clarke [1992] 2 AC 288 Clarke (C) was the occupant of a room at a hostel, run by Westminster City Council, intended for homeless persons. As per the regulations of the hostel, no occupant was entitled to any particular room. Further, the hostel was entitled to require occupants to share rooms with other occupants, forbade visits from non-occupants unless permission was granted, and its staff were entitled to access any room ‘at any time.’ The House of Lords determined that C’s claim for a tenancy was irreconcilable with the ‘totality, immediacy, and objectives of the powers exercisable by the council and the restrictions imposed on’ any given occupant such as C. He had no right of possession; this right was fully reserved and retained by the Council, and the House of Lords took the view that the Council was entitled to do so in order ‘to supervise and control the activities of occupiers.’ Key Points:
Distinction between lease and licenceAs you will have seen, there is much discussion around whether a given arrangement is a lease or a licence, typically in the context of whether the occupant is claiming a right of exclusive possession and the person granting the right of occupation claims they had only granted a licence. Yet the importance of the distinction goes beyond the right of exclusive possession: a lease grants the leaseholder a transferable and enforceable right in the property, whereas a licence confers no rights of transfer or enforcement at all over the property (Ashburn Anstalt v Arnold [1988]). Certain legislative protections apply only to tenants and not to licensees (Rent Act 1977, s.1 for protected tenancies, Housing Act 1988, s.1 for assured tenancies, and the Landlord and Tenant Act 1954, s.23 for business tenancies). In the residential context, however, leases and licences can look very similar. Hence, in looking at ways to distinguish between the two categories, the courts have arrived at various principles:
In short, the definition given by the parties to the agreement is only relevant insofar as it correctly and accurately reflects the nature of the terms of the agreement. It is the terms which define the relationship, not the label. As Bingham LJ observed in Antonaides v Villiers [1990]: ‘A cat does not become a dog because the parties have agreed to call it a dog.’ A lease or tenancy must be for a fixed term of years absoluteWe have seen that the leasehold can be stated to last for any duration - whether one year or one million years - but it is crucial that an ascertainable period is given. The leasehold has to be given in strictly numerical terms; it is presumed by the common law that this gives certainty. Therefore, particular phrases which fail to give a period of years as defined by a numerical value will fail for uncertainty. Examples of failed periods include:
The courts have occasionally questioned the rationale of needing a certainty in the stated period. It has been said to have no ‘satisfactory rationale’ (Prudential Assurance Co Ltd v London Residuary Body [1991] per Lord Browne-Wilkinson), and the court has considered relaxing the requirement of the term of years absolute requirement (Ashburn Anstalt v Arnold [1988] EWCA Civ 14). Case in focus: Prudential Assurance Co Ltd v London Residuary Body [1991] The title to the property held by London Residuary Body (LRB) was formerly held by another party. That other party had granted ‘tenancy’ in 1930, with the tenancy said to exist until such time as the land required improvements to the road. The rent was initially £30 per year, yet by the 1980s the annual rental value had increased almost a thousand fold. Thus, once LRB held the title, they sought to contest the validity of the term of years as defined in the tenancy; that is, they sought to argue that the lease was for a term of years to be given in a defined numerical value rather than by the wording given in the tenancy. LRB sought to be able to argue that the giving of half a year’s notice would be sufficient in the former case. The court agreed with that assessment, ruling that a tenancy defined by a period of such an indeterminate nature could never be a valid lease. Key Points:
Statute does provide for a number of exceptional leases that will automatically be converted into time-bound leases. A lease for life, or a lease until marriage, will be converted into a 90 year lease, dependent on the death or marriage of the original lessee (Law of Property Act 1925, s.149(6)). Likewise, a perpetually renewable lease shall be converted automatically into a 2,000 year term to be determinable exclusively by the lessee (Law of Property Act 1922, s.145, Schedule 15). Periodic tenanciesThere is also the exceptional scenario of the periodic tenancy. In this instance, after a fixed-term period has come to an end, the tenant continues to retain rights of exclusive possession over the property indefinitely. The tenancy can proceed indefinitely until such time as either the landlord or tenant serves a notice to quit on the other party. This may seem to conflict with the requirement of certainty of years, nevertheless periodic tenancies are recognised as valid (Law of Property Act 1925, s.205(1)(xxvii)). The courts have provided various means of explaining (or explaining away) the discrepancy. For example, the court has suggested that:
The parties cannot contract away their legal statusWe mentioned above how the parties are not free to define their relationship solely by the label they accord to the relationship. On a similar, connected point, the parties cannot reduce or erode the status of their relationship where the status on a construction of the terms is already defined and set by the common law or statute. In other words, the parties cannot agree to render the rights of a tenant, say, to be anything less than those ordinarily enjoyed by a tenant. Case in focus: Street v Mountford [1985] Mountford, upon paying a weekly so-called ‘licence fee’, was granted an exclusive right of occupancy over a portion of a flat as per a written so-called ‘licence agreement.’ Under the terms of that agreement, Mountford explicitly disavowed any intention to take the property under a tenancy. Despite the inclusion of this exemption of tenancy rights, the House of Lords said that she was a tenant because the agreement exhibited all of the relevant characteristics of a lease, despite this disavowing of such rights. Therefore, Mountford qualified for the protections accorded to tenants under the Rent Act 1977. Lord Templeman said that ‘if the agreement satisfied all the requirements of a tenancy, then the agreement produced a tenancy and the parties cannot alter the effect of the agreement by insisting they created only a licence. The manufacture of a five-pronged implement for manual digging results in a fork even if the manufacturer, unfamiliar with the English language, insists that he intended to make and has made a spade.’ Therefore, the parties could not contract out of the Rent Act protections. Key points:
Identifying sham or pretence termsGiven the above, certain landlords will want to avoid the effects of a tenancy. After all, the rights accorded to an occupant under a tenancy are far more onerous for a landlord than are those accorded to an occupant under a licence. Notice requirements are more stringent, a tenant will have the right to exclude the landlord in most circumstances, and the landlord is thus far less able to oust the occupant under a tenancy. Therefore, some landlords have sought to include certain terms that erode the legal status of the tenant. In response, the courts are vigilant for such ‘sham’ or ‘pretence’ terms. Where the court finds such a term, it can render the term unenforceable, null and void. The act of discarding such terms - ‘pro non scripto’ (Antonaides v Villiers [1990] per Lord Templeman) - enables the court to properly direct the parties as to the legal effect of the agreement, and prevents vulnerable persons seeking accommodation from being exploited. Case in focus: Antonaides v Villiers [1990] Villiers and his partner had both entered into identical ‘licence’ agreements with Antonaides simultaneously for the occupation of an attic flat. In the agreement, Antonaides purported to retain rights to use the flat in common with them ‘at any time’ (meaning that Antonaides could occupy the flat with them) and would also have the right to introduce any number of other licensees to also share the (very small) premises with Villiers and his partner. Antonaides never exercised the contractual term entitling him to use the flat in common with them. The House of Lords held that this ‘non-exclusive occupation licence’ was an example of a sham agreement. Once the ‘sham’ aspects of the agreement had been stripped away, the court held that the terms of the agreement in their totality pointed towards a tenancy on the part of Villiers and his partner. The court took the physical circumstances of the living space to be a relevant factor: given its very small size, the court said this revealed the ‘air of total unreality’ surrounding Antonaides’s attempt to effectively deny the couple their legal right to a tenancy. Such clauses as the one entitling Antonaides to reside with them in the space could not have been ‘seriously intended’ to have any practical effect. The only reason for their inclusion was to ‘avert the ordinary legal consequences attendant upon letting the appellants into possession at a monthly rent.’ Key Points:
That all being said, a label will not necessarily be irrelevant. Although the courts are certainly concerned with preventing the exploitation by dishonest landlords of vulnerable tenants by the use of such language as ‘licence agreement’ (see for example Bankway Properties Ltd v Pensfold-Dunsford [2001] 1 WLR 1369), sometimes the label can actually be a useful ‘pointer.’ Arden LJ observed in the Court of Appeal that it would be ‘a strong thing for the law to disregard totally the parties’ choice of wording and to do so would be inconsistent with the general principle of freedom of contract’ (National Car Parks Ltd v Trinity Development Co (Banbury) Ltd [2001] EWCA Civ 1686). Examination Consideration: You will have noticed that certain cases have been referred to again and again in this section. They include Street v Mountford, Antonaides v Villiers, Bruton v London & Quadrant Housing Trust, and AG Securities v Vaughan. These are the classic cases on questions of leases versus licences, and it is important that you remember what each case contributes to this area of the case law. It is recommended that as a minimum you can recall what legal principles these cases represent, as well as some of the pithy phrases used by the court, such as the “spade” speech from Lord Templeman. OBLIGATIONSAside from the requirement that a lease entitles the leaseholder to exclusive possession of the property in a term of years, a lease also entails other obligations which ‘remain outstanding on both sides throughout its currency’ (National Carriers Ltd v Panalpina (Northern) Ltd [1981] A.C. 675 per Neuberger J). There are various express obligations that a landlord will owe to their tenant. Here we shall discuss some of the implied obligations owed by a landlord to a tenant.
Case in focus: Southwark LBC v Mills [1999] The Council had let a series of flats, of which the sound insulation was poor and thus there was daily unwanted transmission of noise. Despite this, the House of Lords held there was no breach of the covenant for quiet enjoyment. The inadequate sound-proofing was a product of the structure itself, ‘for which the landlord assumed no responsibility.’ The noise was generated by neighbours as they lawfully and reasonably exercised their own rights of enjoyment over their respective properties, and the building had been adapted for multiple occupation. Given these factors, the court held it ‘must have been within the contemplation of the prospective tenants that the adjoining flats would be let to residential tenants, and that the occupiers would live normally in them’ (per Lord Hoffmann). Key Points:
However, there are exceptions to this Victorian view. Under the common law, the landlord is required to provide for the following:
Examination Consideration: There are essentially three obligations imposed on landlords towards their tenants. The obligations are not absolute and are case-sensitive. Can you recall the wording which underlies the test for each obligation? Cite This ModuleTo export a reference to this article please select a referencing style below:
Reference Copied to Clipboard. Reference Copied to Clipboard. Reference Copied to Clipboard. Reference Copied to Clipboard. Reference Copied to Clipboard. Reference Copied to Clipboard. Reference Copied to Clipboard. What does grant possession mean in PA?If judgment for possession of your home is granted, “yes” will be stated next to the words "Grant possession.” If you are only being sued for unpaid rent, the Magisterial District Judge may give you the option to stay in your home if you pay all rent due and court costs incurred before the date set for eviction.
What is constructive eviction clause?Constructive eviction occurs when the tenant does not have full use and possession of its leased premises in accordance with the terms of its lease. For example, the landlord may cause the constructive eviction of a tenant either by: Changing the locks to the leased premises.
What is Tenany?Definition of tenancy
1 : a holding of an estate or a mode of holding an estate specifically : the temporary possession or occupancy of something (such as a house) that belongs to another. 2 : the period of a tenant's occupancy or possession.
What is diplomatic clause in tenancy agreement?Diplomatic clause. A diplomatic clause is a clause that allows the tenant to terminate the lease before the lease term expires without having to suffer any penalty. In cases where there is no diplomatic clause, the tenant may be required to continue to pay the agreed monthly rent even if he is no longer living there.
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