Which of the following is the least fixed of a persons individual differences
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This study identified evidence of a bidirectional causal relationship between positive emotions and net wealth using a random intercept cross-lagged panel model with three time points (2008, 2012, and 2016) within a sample of 10,898 Americans over age 50 from the Health and Retirement Study. The Great Recession might have contributed to net wealth's effect on positive emotions during this study. The results also suggest that positive emotions shape net wealth, providing evidence favoring the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions and the potential effectiveness of positive psychological interventions for personal finance behaviors. Furthermore, a cross-level interaction of all Big-five personality traits with positive emotion and net wealth showed large cross-lag effects when positive emotion is a predictor of net wealth. Likewise, the interaction of positive emotion by the Big Five traits was a predictor of net wealth, indicating the need for further examination of the moderated effect of positive emotion in the context of personality traits and net wealth.
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IntroductionA bidirectional relationship likely exists between money and positive emotions (De Neve & Oswald, 2012; Diener & Biswas-Diener, 2002). However, the literature emphasizes the emotional benefits derived from money instead of the possible alternative direction: positive emotions cause wealth creation. Despite this emphasis, researchers typically do not present evidence for a causal direction, although they often acknowledge it as a limitation (Diener & Biswas-Diener, 2002; Donnelly et al., 2018). A causal pathway from positive emotions to financial outcomes necessitates more research, given that positive emotions theoretically create an expanded mindset and broader array of behaviors in addition to building psychological, social, and intellectual resources (Fredrickson, 2001). Moreover, existing causal evidence suggests this is a productive line of investigation that shapes positive consumer financial behaviors (Guven, 2012; Lyubomirsky et al., 2005). This study investigates the within-person nature of the relationship between positive emotions and wealth creation, measured by net wealth. While causal evidence for positive emotions triggering healthy financial behaviors and increased income exists (e.g., De Neve & Oswald, 2012; Guven, 2012), there is an opportunity to build on this work by employing a comprehensive financial outcome—net wealth—using longitudinal data across three time points within a random intercept cross-lagged panel model (RI-CLPM). Net wealth is defined as a household's total assets minus total liabilities. Net wealth captures how consumers interact with their financial situation to transform income into assets that support their financial stability and well-being over the life course. Research on the relationship between net wealth and positive emotions has demonstrated mixed results (Roszkowski & Grable, 2007), and researchers have yet to test for causal directions between these two constructs. Furthermore, researchers have found a relationship between personality traits and wealth levels (Asebedo et al., 2019; Brown & Taylor, 2014). Therefore, we also explore if personality traits affect the strength of the relationship between positive emotions and net wealth in a cross-level interaction model for each Big Five personality trait within the RI-CLPM framework (Ozkok et al., 2021). Income and wealth are the most prominent financial outcomes connected to positive emotions and money, with most research testing these effects with cross-sectional data. For example, Kahneman and Deaton (2010) found positive emotions to associate with income up to $75,000, while a rise in life satisfaction increased alongside income without a threshold. Killingsworth (2021) used experience sampling within a large U.S. sample and continuous measures and did not observe this $75,000 income threshold. Instead, Killingsworth found life satisfaction and positive emotions to increase linearly with income. Headey and Wooden (2004) found that wealth and income were associated with improved life and financial satisfaction. However, Donnelly et al. (2018) found that only those with higher earned (vs. inherited) wealth exhibit greater happiness. Donnelly et al. (2018) discussed that higher earned wealth produces happiness but noted that their cross-sectional data did not provide causal evidence and that a reversed path is possible. A growing body of research recognized by the popular press (e.g., Huddleston, 2019) suggests a reversed interpretation is supported empirically and theoretically, even though researchers tend to interpret correlational results in favor of a directional relationship from income or wealth to positive emotions and life satisfaction. Lyubomirsky et al. (2005) reviewed causal evidence favoring positive emotions leading to fruitful life outcomes such as working, social relationships, health, and income. Happier people also save more, have less debt, take more time for decision making, have a longer future time perspective, have higher self-efficacy, and have a broader mindset (Fredrickson, 2001; Guven, 2012; Lyubomirsky et al., 2005). Diener and Biswas-Diener (2002) noted this possible causal direction in that “…it appears high SWB [subjective well-being] might increase people's chances for high income” (p. 119). Furthermore, De Neve et al. (2013) proposed that subjective well-being could predict various life domains, such as future health, income, and productivity. Furthermore, happier young adults earn more income later in life (De Neve & Oswald, 2012). De Neve et al. (2013) indicated that the relationship between happiness and life outcomes is dynamic. Moreover, Oswald et al. (2015) found a causal effect between happiness and productivity in four experimental studies. In summary, the existing literature presents abundant evidence that income, wealth, and various measures of well-being (e.g., positive emotions and life satisfaction) are connected. Much of this work is correlational yet favors the general causal interpretation that money leads to happiness. However, evidence exists for a reversed causal interpretation—from well-being to income. This study builds upon this work by investigating the within-person nature of the relationship between money (net wealth) and well-being (positive emotions) with longitudinal data to detect evidence for causal pathways between these constructs. Research has shown that individual differences in personality traits contribute to the relationship between positive emotions and financial outcomes. For example, more extraversion and less neuroticism significantly mediated the relationship between positive emotions and income (De Neve & Oswald, 2012). These results might be due to the relationship between personality traits and emotions. Research suggests that the Big Five personality traits—openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism—are associated with emotions (McCrae & Costa, 1991): Openness is associated with more positive and negative emotions. Conscientiousness and agreeableness are associated with more positive and less negative emotions; however, Asebedo et al. (2019) found that older adults with greater agreeableness had less positive emotions and more negative emotions. Extraversion is associated with greater positive emotions, and neuroticism with more negative and less positive emotions. Researchers have also concluded through meta-analyses that more openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and less neuroticism result in adaptive emotional regulation strategies (Barańczuk, 2019) and resilience (Oshio et al., 2018). Extensive evidence connects the Big Five personality traits to financial behaviors, such as trading activities (Brown & Taylor, 2014), retirement experience (Robinson et al., 2010), career decisions and money attitudes (Shafer, 2000), lifetime earnings and labor-force participation (Viinikainen & Kokko, 2012), money management behavior (Troisi et al., 2006), impulse buying tendencies (Verplanken & Herabadi, 2001), portfolio withdrawals (Asebedo & Browning, 2020), and households' financial position such as net wealth (Asebedo et al., 2019; Brown & Taylor, 2014). Hampson (2012) observed robust evidence for what personality predicts and that an opportunity exists to investigate personality processes that generate a deeper understanding of how personality contributes to outcomes through mediation and moderation. For example, Matz et al. (2016) found that extraversion moderated the relationship between happiness and spending and that happiness increased when respondents' personality traits aligned with spending. Matz et al. noted that this personality-matched spending had a greater effect on happiness than total income or total spending. Given this background, this study explores the moderating effect of personality traits on the relationship between positive emotions and net wealth. Section snippetsTheoryThe broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions (BBT) provides a connection between personality, positive emotions, and net wealth (Fredrickson, 2001). BBT posits that positive emotions trigger a thought and action expansion while negative emotions constrict them. Positive emotions contribute to a broadened mindset that invites an array of thoughts, strengthens attention, enhances cognition, and recognizes behavioral pathways that generate meaningful and productive actions. Not only are Data and sampleThis study used data from the 2008, 2012, and 2016 waves of the HRS (Health and Retirement Study), a biennial longitudinal panel study of approximately 20,000 Americans over age 50 that is sponsored by the National Institute on Aging (grant number NIA U01AG009740) and conducted by the University of Michigan. The Leave-Behind Psychosocial and Lifestyle Questionnaire provided the personality and positive emotion data. The RAND HRS Longitudinal File 2016 (V2) provided the wealth and covariate Descriptive statisticsTable 1, Table 2 present the sample descriptive statistics. The mean age of the respondents in all three waves was between 65 and 67. In all three waves combined, most respondents were women, White, married or partnered, retired, and had at least some college education or more. Model fitThe CFA results for all Big Five traits and positive emotions are provided in Table 3 (wave 2008), Table 4 (wave 2012), and Table 5 (wave 2016). All standardized factor loadings are statistically significant and range DiscussionThis study investigates the within-person nature of the relationship between positive emotions and wealth creation and whether personality traits moderate this relationship within a random intercept cross-lagged panel model (RI-CLPM) for each Big Five personality trait using three time points (2008, 2012, and 2016). Research has detected significant relationships between personality, positive emotions, and financial outcomes. For example, De Neve and Oswald (2012) found evidence for the ConclusionThe directional inferences between positive emotions and financial outcomes observed in the literature and this study may appear nuanced. However, they present markedly different implications for consumers: If financial resources produce positive emotions, it suggests that pursuing income and wealth is necessary for happiness (Donnelly et al., 2018). On the other hand, if wealth creation results from differences in how people think, feel, and behave, it signals that the consumer has greater Credit authorship contribution statementSarah Asebedo designed and led the study. Taufiq Hasan Quadria and Esteban Montenegro-Montenegro implemented the analysis. Ying Chen contributed to the literature review and theory. References (43)
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Research article Personality and Individual Differences, Volume 199, 2022, Article 111863 Show abstractNavigate Down Executive functions are the cognitive skills that help people attain their goals, while grit describes persistent efforts to attain success. However, little research has hitherto examined the relationships among grit, executive functions, and well-being. This empirical study helps fill that gap. Three self-report psychological instruments were administered to 214 university students, and simple direct regression applied to the collected data to analyze the effects of the three variables. The results indicated that grit had positive relationships with both executive functions and well-being. The implications of these findings, and the limitations of the study's methods, are also discussed. Research article Personality and Individual Differences, Volume 199, 2022, Article 111864 Show abstractNavigate Down Variation in how individuals experience and express anger has been linked to their attachment style, particularly in close interpersonal contexts. However, little research has investigated attachment-related differences in anger and aggression in non-attachment-based settings. This multi-method investigation reports two studies. The first investigated associations between anger and adult attachment dimensions in 270 participants. The second describes a lab-based anger provocation task which examined associations between attachment and pre-post-test change in self-reported anger, physiological responses, anger suppression and aggressive responding (N = 77). Results from study 1 indicate that attachment anxiety was a significant independent predictor of trait anger, while attachment avoidance was not. There were no significant interaction effects, suggesting distinct effects of attachment dimensions on anger. In study 2, attachment avoidance was negatively related to anger change scores from baseline to post-provocation and positively to anger suppression. Attachment anxiety was positively associated with aggressive responding. These findings support the high arousal-low control style previously associated with attachment anxiety, evidenced by elevated trait anger and aggressive responding. They also align with previous studies that support an association between attachment avoidance and emotion suppression, suggesting that the attachment framework can be usefully extended to understand anger and aggression in non-attachment-based contexts. Research article Matters arising from Lee et al. (2022)Personality and Individual Differences, Volume 199, 2022, Article 111838 Research article Intellectualism and analytical thinking: Are they related?Personality and Individual Differences, Volume 199, 2022, Article 111842 Show abstractNavigate Down Analytical thinking is a vital part of intellectualism, although their relationship has not been directly examined. Therefore, in a representative Slovak sample (N = 410), we examined a newly developed Intellectualism-Anti-Intellectualism Scale (IAIS) by Marques et al. (2017) and its relationships to two indicators of analytical thinking - cognitive biases and cognitive reflection. Moreover, we focused on the three analytical thinking prerequisites - cognitive ability, numerical mindware, and dispositions to analytical thinking. Our results favor the positive correlation between analytical thinking - i.e., lower bias susceptibility and higher cognitive reflection - and intellectualism. While cognitive ability showed no significant association, subjective measures of analytic thinking and numeracy were the strongest correlates of intellectualism. These results indicated that intellectualism taps mostly (but not only) into the motivation and/or predisposition to think analytically. Finally, education appeared, consistently with previous research, as a significant predictor of intellectualism, which opened up new avenues for further research practical implications. Research article Hope, future work self and life satisfaction among vocational high school students in China: The roles of career adaptability and academic self-efficacyPersonality and Individual Differences, Volume 199, 2022, Article 111822 Show abstractNavigate Down The current study examined the role of career adaptability and academic self-efficacy as two potential mediators between hope, future work self, and life satisfaction. A total of 636 Chinese vocational high school students completed measures of hope, future work self, career adaptability, academic self-efficacy, and life satisfaction. The results indicated that: (a) hope, future work self, career adaptability, and academic self-efficacy were positively related to life satisfaction; (b) the effects of hope and future work self on life satisfaction were mediated by career adaptability or academic self-efficacy; (c) more hope and clearer future work self were associated with greater career adaptability, which related to higher academic self-efficacy; ultimately, higher academic self-efficacy was related to higher life satisfaction; (d) males tended to report more hope, greater career adaptability, higher academic self-efficacy, and higher life satisfaction than females. These findings contribute to a comprehensive understanding of the factors that intervene in vocational high school students' life satisfaction and enrich theoretical implications about career adaptability. Research article Perfectionism: A network analysis of relationships between the Big Three Perfectionism dimensions and the Big Five Personality traitsPersonality and Individual Differences, Volume 199, 2022, Article 111839 Show abstractNavigate Down This study investigated the relationship between the Big Three Perfectionism Scale–Short Form (BTPS-SF) (Rigid, Self-critical, and Narcissistic perfectionism) and the ten facets of the Big Five Questionnaire (BFQ) through network analysis. The BTPS-SF and the BFQ were administered to 473 Italian workers. Both centrality indexes (Expected Influence and Node Predictability) and bridge dimensions were calculated. Stability and accuracy were also checked to ensure the trustworthiness and reliability of the findings. The network analysis showed that BTPS-SF Rigid Perfectionism had the highest centrality and a bridge function, whereas BFQ Dominance had a bridge function. Findings suggested that BTPS-SF Rigid Perfectionism and BFQ Dominance are relevant in linking perfectionism and personality traits. Although further studies are needed, the network approach can provide a promising realm for understanding relationships between perfectionism and personality traits. Which of the following is the most fixed of a person's individual differences?Which of the following is the most fixed of a person's individual differences? Intelligence and mental abilities are relatively fixed.
Which personality trait has the strongest and most positive effect on performance?The truth is that 100+ years of psychological research has shown conscientiousness – that is, the tendency toward self-efficacy, orderliness, achievement, and self-discipline – to be the best predictor of job performance.
Which of the following is a recommended method of understanding which individual differences are valued by employers?Which of the following is a recommended method of understanding which individual differences are valued by employers? Create a profile of important managers and leaders in the organization.
Which one of the following is not an element of emotional intelligence?The answer is b.
The components of emotional intelligence include the following: relationship management, self-awareness, self-management, and social awareness. Therefore, emotional stability is not one of the elements of emotional intelligence.
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