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This comprehensive bibliography of texts in or about Virgin Islands Dutch Creole is the updated version of the bibliography which was originally published in Die Creol Taal, 250 Years of Negerhollands Texts (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 1996). Please contact us when you have information, corrections et cetera to keep this text up to date. Thanks in advance!

In this chapter, I discuss research that has been carried out on Dutch-lexifier Caribbean creoles in some detail. I consider the extent of their contemporary documentation and the scholarship on these languages. I then set out the main findings in my own work on Berbice Dutch. Finally, I focus on the Dutch element in these languages, and outline directions for future research.

This article explores the roles played by Amerindians in the contact situations in which two Dutch creole languages arose, Berbice Dutch (Berbice, Guyana) and Skepi Dutch (Essequibo, Guyana). Amerindians were a constant presence in the pre-formative and formative phase of both languages, as set out in some detail through a historical overview of the initial phases of exploration of the “Wild Coast” by the Dutch, followed by the development of a network of trading posts, and finally settlement and development of a plantation-based economy.

The Roman Catholic Apostolic Church in Curaçao promoted the literary writing in the creole language Papiamentu in the 1920s and 1930s. The literary authors were native speakers of the language. Their prose writing was meant to promote Catholicism, both its religious creeds and, more particularly, its principles for everyday life. This creativity was unprecedented and grew in specifically demanding times for the missionary church, while Curaçao society rapidly industrialized. Missionary work was threatened by modern pleasures and comforts that loosened the bond of the people with the missionaries. This literary 'propaganda' , though appreciated for being in Papiamentu, was shoved aside in the 1940s by secularized writing in the creole vernacular. Nonetheless, a firm stepping stone for writing in Papiamentu had been laid down. In 1919 de Curaçaosche Roomsch Katholieke Volksbond [the Curaçao Roman Catholic People's Union] was founded 'under the protection of God Almighty' and in accordance with the principles of the Roman Catholic 1 Based on research incorporated in A.G. Broek, De kleur van mijn eiland; Ideologie en schrijven in het Papiamentu sinds 1863, Leiden 2006, see 54-71, including more recent research of my own and others, referred to hereafter. I owe a debt of gratitude to Scott Rollins for translational support of the present text.

Berbice Dutch Creole combines left-headedness and SVO order with features which are atypical of Caribbean creoles, such as sentence-final negation, postpositional structures, and aspectual sulIixation. The order of constituents in the sentence and in other structures is an issue which has not received much attention in the study of Caribbean creole languages, presumably because there is no conflict between basic constituent order in the English-, French-, Spanish-and Portuguese-related creoles and their lexifiers. Such a conflict exists between Dutch and the Dutchrelated creoles Negerhollands (of the US Virgin Islands; extinct), Skepi Dutch (of the Essequibo River area in Guyana; extinct), and Berbice Dutch Creole (of the Berbice River area in Guyana; nearly extinct): whereas SOV order underlies Dutch utterances, Dutch-related creoles invariably display SVO order (Bruyn and Veenstra in press). This article aims at reconstructing some of the developments which resulted in the combination of features displayed by Berbice Dutch Creole through a reconstruction of the choices available in the initial contact situation. Evidence from vocabulary, morphology, and syntax shows that these can best be accounted for as a linguistic compromise between two languages in contact, Dutch and Eastern-Ijo. It thus provides strong support for the relevance of Thomason and Kaufmans (1988) process of creole formation out of a crystallized pidgin formed through linguistic * The data presented here were provided by native speakers of Berbice Dutch Creole in fieldwork which I carried out between 1986 and 1990. This fieldwork was financially supported by grant W39-116 of the Netherlands Foundation for the Advancement of Tropical Research (WOTRO), and carried out under the supervision of Pieter Muysken and Norval Smith of the University of Amsterdam. Some of the ideas outlined here were presented at the 1988 meeting of the Society for Caribbean Linguistics, at the 1989 Colloque du Comite International des Etudes Crboles, at the 1989 Essener Colloquium, and at the 1989 Summer Institute at the University of Utrecht. I thank the audiences on these occasions for their critical discussion of my contribution. In addition, I received helpful comments from various readers, among whom I want to particularly thank Salikoko Mufwene.

It is evident that research is required into the influence of the 'Seemantaal" on the development of the Cape Dutch language in the 17th and 18th century. This paper is an introduction to such a research.

The focus of this article is the second of five stages in Garifuna language development: Old Garifuna. This period reveals contributions in the language made purely by Blacks – beginning around the first sighting of Africans on St. Vincent Island and ending just before installations of small French settlements in Garifuna communities on the same island. Old Garifuna is the earliest form of the language, created as the first African inhabitants molded the native language to suit their particular phonetic inventory. Theories in language contact offer a possible explanation for the emergence of a Black community on St. Vincent and why there is such a dearth of African loanwords during this time. This stage of Garifuna language development is best characterized as a strategy for survival, as Africans purposely acculturated themselves to the native culture and language in order to avoid being reintroduced into slavery.